Reading response paper 2 Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Reading response paper 2 - Assignment Example It never mattered if a piece of work was ornamental or representational, but the significance was the quality of aliveness. The quality that appears from artistic value does not necessarily depend on subject matter or motif. The first attempt to come up with realistic scenes in a pictorial form is found during the period of warring states (The Great Painters of China 3). The scenes are found in relieve and intaglio on bronze, which represent the figures of warriors, hunters, boats men, and musicians. Figure 6 is a clay title from Szechwam that shows less imposing objects. These objects are a clear representation of birds’ hunters at the lake at the upper side while the lower side is a representation of people harvesting in the field. The lake is symbolized by flowering lotus and big fish instead of being represented. On the other hand, the sky is full of wild ducks in flight and there is no appearance of a distant shoreline (The Great Painters of China 5). The harvesters are seen standing on a tilted position and this is evident through simple device thinning rows of the plants on them. In addition, while most of the figures are seen on an imaginary ground near the lower edge, one of the men is seen at the deeper space. Originally, it is evident that painting was concentrated on ornamental design. However, during the early parts of Han dynasty, there was a change by representation of reality in pictorial form from various sources. The most important thing was creating expressive conversation. The scene showed in figure 13 represents the story of a grandson Yuan Ku who in a period of starvation saved his grandfather from dying in the wilderness. In addition, he saved his father from the guilt of parricide. At the left side of the picture, the grand father is seen squatting abandoned under a cedar tree by the stream. Yuan Ku picks an empty stretcher to go and fetch his grandfather, but his father yells at him saying that the

Cushy Armchair New Objectives and Rules Essay Example for Free

Cushy Armchair New Objectives and Rules Essay As you know, my name is Alison Sampson. I am the new director of Cushy Armchair. I come from Cabletronica U.S. with the purpose of guiding Cushy Armchair to a new era in this changing industry. We will begin with some small steps, all involving â€Å"greater consolidation† in order to achieve economies of scale and scope. In order to adapt and to be more competitive, we must focus our efforts to reduce cost, speed product design and improve technology transfer. Specifically, we most work in production, design (fabric Style), sales and distribution (advertising), and procurement. Requested Activities †¢To Purchasing Manager: oWorld Furniture’s procurement division In New York, will be responsible to contract all chair glide-mechanisms, as well as fabric orders in excess of HK$35,000. This will help us to reduce our raw material cost. †¢To Marketing Manager: New York advertising specialist will work together with us in launching new advertising campaigns. In this way, we can all share knowledge and come up with the best decision. †¢To Design Manager: New York staff will be included in any substantial design and feature changes. In order to accomplish our ultimate goal of having everything in one place. Conclusion Even though I haven’t yet had the opportunity to meet with almost anyone, I will contact you over the next days to discuss the impact of these policy changes and the changes coming ahead. Do not hesitate to contact me if I have not called you yet. You will receive this MEMO in your native language over the next couple of days. I hope you share my observations and concerns for the future of Cushy Armchair, and I trust you will welcome these changes.

Honor in No One Writes to the Colonel and Chronicle of a Death Foretold

Honor in No One Writes to the Colonel and Chronicle of a Death Foretold by Garcia-Marquez Every culture in the world has its own unique set of values that they adhere to in life. The most important value to people is their honor. Honor is a very important factor in a person life that they will stop at nothing to make sure it is not lost. This endless pursuit of keeping honor can causes both positive and negative effects to a society. The reason honor is a main driving force in a person's life is for the simple fact that it determines how the society views that person's integrity, honesty and truthfulness to himself and family. In the two novellas No One Writes to the Colonel and Chronicle of a Death Foretold, Garcia-Marquez shows the complexity involved in the pursuit of honor. He explains through his writings that preserving honor is essential to live, but can be very harmful to others. The pursuit of honor can cause complex and difficult situations that can either benefit or harm others in a society. It can cause people to either live a truthful life or a false life run by lies and illusion. In the process of attaining honor strong relationships and friendships can fall apart. The pursuit of honor can give liveliness and vigor to people or put them people into a state of paralysis. The pursuit of honor can either cause a person live a life where they are true to themselves and their feeling or live a life run by lies and illusion. A false life refers to a human using lies and illusion to change the perception that others have of their honor and overall place society. In the novella No One Writes to the Colonel, the Colonel and his wife live their lives under the illusion that they are not poor so they can... ...process to maintain honor then it would not be a major determinate on that person character and family. The preservation of honor is similar to recent corruption scandals in Providence, Rhode Island. The mayor of Providence Buddy Cianci focused and pursued his life on the attainment of power in the city. He cheated and lied his way through the office as governor doing anything he could to remain in power. Like in the pursuit of honor he made many business relationships and also fired anyone who would ruin his chances at remaining in office. Similarly to what happens in the pursuit of honor he devoted his entire life to his campaign. His struggle for power in Providence is similar to the way Garcia-Marquez shows complexity involved in the pursuit of honor. Works Cited: Garcia Marquez, Gabriel. Chronicle of a Death Foretold. New York: Ballantine, 1982.

Theoretical Application

There is a criminal phenomenon that has been under continuous study by criminologists and has also pre-occupied American society, â€Å"criminal gangs†. When the general public thinks of the term â€Å"gangs†, the thought inevitably evokes feelings and images predominately associated with criminal activity that aids to the dilapidation of their neighborhoods and social settings. The term gangs and the crime associated are often viewed differently by the media and law enforcement personnel and even more distinctively by politicians. There is little debate that understanding what a gang is or is not facilitates the identification of variant types of gangs and subsequently aids in developing policies and tactics for communities to address their gang problems. These problems associated with the criminal phenomenon of gang activity range from petty thefts and graffiti â€Å"tagging† to drug use, distribution and homicide. The ailments to a neighborhood caused and/or associated with gang activity are of a social disorder that is no longer considered a localized issue. Gangs have become broadly interconnected with separate chapters across the United States and even have a presence transnationally. Gangs are a criminological problem because the dilemmas of gang activity have grown beyond large cities and urban environments and found a home also in smaller cities and suburban life. According to an FBI study, criminal gangs commit as much as 80 percent of the crime in many communities and gang members are migrating from urban areas to suburban and rural communities, expanding the gangs’ influence in most regions (2009 National Gang Threat Assessment). The various criminal street gangs in the United States range from small neighborhood-oriented petty units to much larger international and commercial gang oriented establishments. Gangs present a nationwide problem and the related issues are magnified by the continuous recruitment of local youth into gangs which are transnational and internationally based. Many suburban and rural communities are facing an increase in criminal acts attributed to gangs and their immediate influence on the social structure of the neighborhoods they reside in. Los Angeles is one such city that has long been plagued by the presence of criminal gangs. In 1993, gang members were involved as suspects or victims in about one-third of all homicides and historically, between 1980 and 1989, the homicide rate in Los Angeles was more than double the rate for the State of California (Meehan and O’Carroll). Los Angeles has been a focal point for many studies conducted regarding the phenomenon of gang activity. As noted, the gang phenomenon has been a focal study of criminological researchers. Various research theories have been employed in an attempt to identify social origins and the implications of gang activity. There is an abundance of facts that pertain to gang crime and the related byproduct of this type of criminal activity. But what are the explanation(s) as to how and why these facts became measurable and accountable? In other words, what are possible causes and explanations to the creation and survival of gangs and its members respectively? Many different scientific theories could be employed to propose answers about the relationships between observable events in gang phenomena. To provide an explanation to this phenomenon, a review of gang related issues found in Celeste Freman’s â€Å"G-Dog and the Homeboys† is coupled with the contention that such issues are the result of a cultural imbalance between the socially accepted pursuit of wealth and the less desired value of hard work, honesty, and education. Such an explanation is most appropriately found when applying the criminology based Strain Theory. This theory is derived from exploring the social structures in America and the accompanying opportunities available to pursue socially supported norms like the pursuit of wealth or status, often referred to as the American Dream. Ultimately, the result on individuals to acquire wealth or status creates undue stress propelling some to seek results through non-institutionalized means. This is a practice and a sub-culture that is readily accepted within gang phenomenon. The Strain Theory, originally presented by Robert K. Merton, has been used in various studies to support the premise that the American Dream concept and the pressure to achieve some resemblance of it serves as a causation of crime. It is not uncommon to see reporting of individuals resulting to unconventional means like crime to obtain what they cannot through conventional means. The Strain Theory makes an effort to justify factors found in low-income and industrial neighborhoods. It presents these factors as barriers to opportunity and directly attributes them to crime and the formation of gangs. The Strain Theory is part of the Positivist School of Criminology thought and supposes actions are observable and not socially created. Strain Theory consists of elements from social disorganization and an individual lack of norms, termed â€Å"anomie†. The social disorganization and anomie theories are derived from different research platforms but all have common arguments. The proposed thought is that the less there exists of solidarity, cohesion, or integration within a group, community or society, the higher will be crime, the rate of crime, and deviance (Akers and Sellers). What drives someone to commit such unconventional acts in pursuit of wealth or status? Merton’s position concerning an individual pursuing non-institutional means is derived from a person’s â€Å"attitude† toward the pursuit of cultural goals such as wealth and status. Merton presented manners that an individual may resort to from undergoing strain caused by the limited access to resources needed to obtain these institutional goals. The way an individual responds or the adaptive manners is dependent on their acceptance or rejection toward social goals, the American Dream and status, and the opportunity available to attain them. Not having available resources and opportunity will directly attribute to gang association and membership recruitment. A study of Strain Theory regarding attributing factors of gang membership identified the stigma of poverty status to have a positive effect on gang membership and may even aid to the perception of blocked opportunities (Vowell and May). A neighborhood that is ripe with social problems, low income housing, and little opportunity offers a higher potential for juvenile delinquency and assimilation of like minds such as gangs. Evidence to this is noted in the study of Strain Theory which found evidence that living in a neighborhood where social problems and physical deterioration were perceived to be a problem and was positively related to delinquency. Additionally, this study noted that general strain leads to delinquent involvement by weakening the conventional social bond and strengthening the unconventional bond with delinquent peers (Paternoster and Mazerolle). This presents the likelihood of individuals finding similar non-institutional means to obtain social goals from gang membership. Gangs do offer knowledge of non-institutional means and in many cases offer the peer support to an individual pursing what they desire, often it is a derivative of the American Dream. The Strain Theory provides a plausible reason why most crime is fixated in certain areas of urban cities, supported by the assertion that social culture and structure must be weighed as equal parts. The theory by Merton emphasizes that society places more importance on the success of an individual achieving wealth or status than on the socially accepted means by which this success is obtained. All classes of American society have been inundated through the media, politics, education, and marketing that success is the most important social value. Yet, the opportunities to attain this success are limited in the lower-class of society and thus provide a breeding ground for gang creation and advancement. When these opportunities are pursued, they are expected to be sought out in truthful and socially accepted ways. Unfortunately for our society, more emphasis is placed on obtaining the American Dream and the success of wealth than the manner in which it is accomplished. There is a dominant belief in the American Dream or social status and this belief is one that encompasses all classes of society. However, equal opportunity, the socially recognized need to attain the American Dream or status is unfortunately distorted among the lower-class of society. There is an outcry from these citizens who consider resources available to capture their goals as distorted when compared to other classes creating a springboard of stress. Even though all citizens of our society believe and measure their success by obtaining some portion of the wealth and status, some are not provided the standard resources to meet the expectations demanded to acquire it. Building on the strain theory, Albert K. Cohen pursued a position where male deviant behavior was in response to â€Å"blocked opportunities† and was an assimilating attribute of the lower-class subculture produced from social structure strain (Vowell, & May). The deviance provoked behavior was due to the inability to gain social prominence. This is similar to Merton’s variation of Strain. However, Merton centered on material wealth rather than a position in society or status. Middle-class citizens are accepted and supported in work and education environments because of they typically are able to meet social expectations required of them for status or of wealth. Unlike the middle-class, the lower-class populous finds it difficult to meet socially accepted standards due to the limited access to available resources and result to deviant behavior. This is often materialized by the formation and acceptance into the social subculture of gangs where the rejected find common ideology and share in access to unconventional means such as crime. It is in this subculture of gangs that the unconventional measure to achieve a certain status or respect is found. The Strain Theory proposed that the deviant assimilation is carried out by identifying the opportunities that are also legal means, not just the illegal ones. In essence, the premise is made that an individual is not driven to conduct criminal behavior solely by the singular desire to acquire wealth or status but also there is a learned behavior of criminal means and acts derived from the social environment they are reside in and ultimately exposed to. This can be expounded on within a gang environment producing criminal acts of different sorts to foster the pursuit of status and wealth. As mentioned, the issues of gang activity in Los Angeles present an overwhelming constraint on positive social development brought on by criminal activity. The criminal acts carried out by the likes of gang members within the Los Angeles neighborhoods highlighted in G-Dog and the Home Boys are a result of the absent non-supportive family structure needed. Employment opportunities, when provided by Father Greg (G-Dog), are ridden with social hurdles. To even pursue the opportunity, they must first escape beyond the concrete island their gang resides on and â€Å"trespass† into those areas marked as enemy territory. Such enormous impediments can seem overwhelming and result in an individual retreating into the fold of his fellow â€Å"homies†, dismissing the potential of an opportunity. This hurdle is secondary to the perceived reprisal waiting in the wings of the Los Angeles Police Department and the subsequent sentiment fellow gang members have of abandonment. The various gangs, primarily Clarence Street Locos, viewed by Fremont over the shoulder of Father Greg all were comprised of members who were predominately juvenile, from a broken or deteriorating family structure, out of or were recoiling from school and education, jobless and possessed little belief in the prospect of a future without the support of their fellow gang members. Whether the East L. A. Dukes, Capones, The Mob Crew, East Coast Crips or another Latino or African American gang, the predominant make-up of its membership were part of an unskilled and poor community searching for a sense of belonging and a way for survival. Members like Dreamer, Turtle, Ghost, Droopy, Ghost, Oso, Silent, etc. , all battled a daily routine of gang life in and out of the projects. Members of the community of gang ridden neighborhoods of Pico Gardens and Aliso Village had little to offer its inhabitants. These predominately Latino immigrant ommunities possessed little in way of educational or employment opportunities. There were little options for jobs and instead the community youth found themselves marketing the gang arenas for membership. Most of the Clarence Street gang members became role models for their siblings and continuously offered â€Å"veterano† advice for participating in gang life. This type of life was all that seemed to be obtainable, due in n o small part to the lack of opportunities. This then became the only way they knew to get what they wanted in life. The lack of opportunity is magnified without a solid role model and father figure in their home. This was a constant variable throughout the insights collected by Freeman provided by individual gang members. When there was a father figure present, it was one that showed little compassion or even interest into their life. The lifestyle as a gang member was the opportunity that was available to them and is what filled the void of family and acceptance. Their daily struggle is evident in the simple but deadly decisions they had to make; visible in determining a roundabout path to a party or through an enemy’s territory. The homicides that occur, the decisions to â€Å"hit back†, the dishonorable choices made when confronted by another gang, the fear of police, the need to find employment, the hopelessness of education, the constrained choices to sleep in cars or homeless shelters, etc. , all are attributing factors of stress that result from a lack of opportunity when pursuing a life of normalcy. â€Å"Gangs come into existence and flourish because the needs of the young people in a neighborhood or culture or family are not being met. The gang, in essence, fills the void† (Gardner). The American Dream and the need for status present the same â€Å"needs† often sought after by unconventional means through gang activity. No doubt Father Greg’s commitment witnessed by his numerous attempts to help over and over again through mental and economic support created opportunities otherwise unavailable. Not to mention his eventual creation of Homeboy Industries and the overwhelming economic advantage it offered in reducing negative employment and neighborhood induced stress. Gang Phenomenon is a socially adaptive instrument that offers the mechanism to fill the needs, such as the wealth and status, of the deprived juveniles. The gang and its members discussed in G-Dog and the Home Boys sought nontraditional means that were socially unacceptable but filled the emptiness caused by the lack of opportunities in the lower-class communities they resided in. As long as there is apparent or perceived blocked opportunities and unequal resources in the lower-class, gangs and their related criminal activity will be a continuing issue for America. BIBLIOGRAPHY Akers, Robert, & C. S Sellers. (2009). â€Å"Criminological Theories, Introduction, Evaluation and Application†. New York: Oxford University Press. Fremon, Celeste. (2004) G-Dog and the Homeboys: Father Greg Boyle and the Gangs of East Los Angeles. University of New Mexico Press. Gardner, Sandra. (1992). Street Gangs in America. Franklin Watts, New York, NY. Meehan, Patrick and Patrick O’Carroll. (1992). â€Å"Gangs, Drugs, and Homicide in Los Angeles. † American Journal of Diseases of Children 146. Paternoster, Raymond and Paul Mazerolle. (1994). General Strain Theory and Delinquency: â€Å"A Replication and Extension†. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency. Volume 31. The National Gang Intelligence Center. (2009). Product No. 2009-M0335-001. â€Å"National Gang Threat Assessment. † Vowell, Paul and David May. (2000). Another Look at Classic Strain Theory: â€Å"Poverty Status, Perceived Blocked Opportunity, and Gang Membership as Predictors of Adolescent Violent Behavior†. Sociological Inquiry. Volume 70.

Mfecane Debates

Julian Cobbing against ‘The mfecane’ Has the mfecane a future? In recent times historians known as â€Å"Africanists† revived the topic of the mfecane in the early 1960s and it was well exploited and was also used to justify certain aspects of Apatheid. The word ‘mfecane’ is a characterised product of the South African liberal history that is used by the Apartheid regime state to legitimate South Africa's racially and unequal land division. In the 1970s the mfecane has become the most widely used terms in south African history and historical literature . inding the original meaning of mfecane could somehow be merely impossible reason being from on angle the mfecane was the Nguni diaspora which from the early 1820s which took Nguni raiding communities such as Ndebele, the Ngoni and Gaza and over more southern regional parts of south-central Africa which reach as far as Lake Tanzania. Astonishingly some of the selective use or the actual invention of ev idence has produced the myth of an internally-induced process known as the black-on-black destruction centring on Shaka Zulu.A re-evaluating from the ‘battles’ of Dithakong and Mbolompo suggests very different ideas and enables us to decipher the motives of subsequent historiographical amnesias and knowledge. After about 1810 the black peoples of southern Africa were caught between intensifying and converging imperialistic thrusts: one to supply the Cape Colony with labour; another, at Delagoa Bay, to supply slaves particularly to the Brazilian sugar plantations. The flight of the Ngwane from the Mzinyathi inland to the Caledon was, it is argued, a response to slaving.But they ran directly into the colonial raiding-grounds north of the Orange. The (missionary-led) raid on the still unidentified ‘Mantatees’ (not a reference to MaNtatisi) at Dithakong in 1823 was one of innumerable Griqua raids for slaves to counter a shortage of labour among the Cape settler s after the British expansionist wars of 1811 to 1820. Similar Griqua raids forced the Ngwane south from the Caledon into the Transkei. Here, at Mbolompo in 1828, the Ngwane were attacked yet again, this time by a British army seeking ‘free’ labour after the reorganisation of the Cape's labour-procurement system in July 1828.The British claim that they were parrying a Zulu invasion is exposed as propaganda, and the connexions between the campaign and the white-instigated murder of Shaka are shown. In short, the African societies did not generate the regional violence on their own. Rather, were caught within the European net and were soon transformed over lengthen periods in reaction to the attentions of external plunderers. The core misrepresentations and false understandings of ‘the mfecane’ are thereby revealed; the term, and the concept, should be abandoned.A closely related, though different, mfecane centres on the perspectives on the Zululanders and th e figured mindset of Shaka. many of those in Zulu cultures and trditionalised South Africans has come to a conclusion become a revolutionary process internal to Nguni society which leads to the development of the ibutho and the tributary mode of production. Shaka is seen as a heroic figure providing a positive historical example in South African history and created a sense of self-respect for black citizens in South Africa today.But inside these wider definitions another mfecane there are more specifically referring to the impact of Nguni raiders (the Nedbele, Hlubi and Ngwane) on the Sotho west of the Drakensberg. The mfecane encompassed many great fields of African self-destruction which extended from the Limpopo all the way to Orange. It has allegedly depopulated vast areas of what had become the Orange Free State, the Transvaal and, with the aid of the Zulu, Natal, which thus lay empty for white expansion. At the time many Africans dispersed and survivors clustered together and within a period of time formed enclave states of Lesotho, Swaziland and Botswana.A term known as the ‘general distribution of white and Bantu landownership' in South Africa was soon established. On these African-created foundations rose the Bantustans or Homelands of twentieth-century Southern Africa. Contradictions coexist within mfecane theories with contrasts sand the definitions of timing. As an era of history the latter 1trans-orangian' mfecane begins in about 1820 and ends in either 1828 with the departure of the Ngwane, or it had ended in the early mid-1830s with the arrival of the French missionaries and later followed by the Boers.The Zulu-centred mfecane on the other hand begins with the career of Dingiswayo at the end of the eighteenth century and continues until the end of the Zulu kingdom which ended in 1879. Sub continental mfecane does continue until the 1890s. In short, I would say there is no one definition of the mfecane. It can be referred to people, to an e ra or to a process of internal development. It could be destructive, constructive; anti-African; pro-African; geographically narrow, or sub continental. Not all of these ontradictions can be resolved as a whole, but there is a need for answers and its existence requires an explanation, since their origins of the mfecane are by now very much buried in the heart of South African historiography. Firstly, my mission of this essay is attend to the origins of the mfecane, how it started and give brief overviews and backgrounds between those who played a very important role in the era of Shaka Zulu and the period of the mfecane. My intentions are also to unravel the development within the mfecane as it has been handed down in South African historiography.Many writers have had a hand in creating the mfecane. The poor taste of the dish derives from the poor quality of the initial ingredients. In the second part, I suggest some lines of attack on the pillars of mfecane mythology, and leave it to the reader to decide whether the concept is worth salvaging. Julian Cobbing known best as a being against the mfecane and the critical analysis of south African history, he also had he’s own point of the subjects of who the important characters like Shaka Zulu had and the effects, whether he did or did not control the southern part of Africa or whether he played a minor role in the mfecane era.The the evolution between the ibutho amongst the Ngune, the wars between Zulu and the Ndwandwe traditions, and the rise of the Zulu kingdom are half a century after Bryant, had made integral to the mfecane. Shaka becomes a hero and Mzilikazi a creative state-builder. ‘The movement as awhole' has also expanded to bring in Swaziland and the career of Mswati,Gazaland and the careers of the Soshangane and Mzila, as well as the Ngonistates of Mbelwa and Mpezeni. The validity of both these conceptual and the geographical expansions with their linkage to the original concepts of the mfecane has so far still remained unremarked.As to the linkage of the mfecane to ‘an understanding of the contemporary Situation of the' Omer-Cooper's analysis is (unsurprisingly)subjective. It is also highly contradictory. In the one direction, ‘the traditions towards the Mfecane have retained their fascination because they provide a bulwark of self-respect, a shield against the cripplingof inferiority, encouraged by the structure of white dominated society. ‘ Whereas in the other, ‘the battles and massacres of the Mfecane being accounted for the general distribution of white andBantu landownership [in South Africa today]. This is the latter that a few Africans would claim and accept. Omer-Cooper's two claims for the mfecane have in turn underpinnedwo incompatible to the mfecane traditions in the 1970s. The more liberal part of the various traditions is located mainly within in Europe, the United States and inThe South African English-speaking universities. There are list historians of Africa who have adopted ideas of Omer-Cooperof the mfecane as a positive revolutionary idea.Before 1966,and the publication of Zulu Aftermath general text books on African History had not yet Pick up the mfecane. By 1970 it was being integrating virtually all of them. July's over simplifications are typical. ‘The driving force,' he wrote, ‘was land hunger caused by population pressure among migrating cattle keepers and the vehicle was the military outburst known as the Zulu Mfecane. ‘ In 1969 Leonard Thompson discussed a concept known as the difaqane in the influential Oxford History of South Africa. W. F. Lye has built an academic career on the mfecane.He wavers between Ellenberger's older version in which Matiwane and Mzilikazi are denigrated and the newer one in which they are talented state-builders. R. Kent Rasmussen in an analysis of the early Ndebele state describes the state as an unambiguously positive manner. In the 1960s and 1970s the mfecane was updated. Inside South Africa it was adapted to explain the origins, if not the Creation of the black homelands and societies, at a time when South Africans badlyNeeded all the help they could get in justifying this processes both to an international audience and to their own up and upcoming generations.At the same time, bizarrely, historians mainly outside South Africa,not having noticed the use in which the mfecane was being put south of the Limpopo and hitched the mfecane to an alternative history that is stressed the glories of the Africa’s past and attempted to provide for Africans self-respect, defences against European suggestions that the African past was sterile, barbaric and static. Racist interpretations have been shielded from view by the Africanist one. The result must surely bewilder any student who attempts to definite mfecane with any concise coherence. Niyaaz Nell History Assignment: Mfecane Debate Tutor: Ayanda DL4

The Prefix Hyper and Related Words

The Prefix Hyper and Related Words The Prefix Hyper and Related Words The Prefix Hyper and Related Words By Mark Nichol Words with the Greek prefix hyper (meaning â€Å"above,† â€Å"beyond,† or â€Å"over†) are listed and defined in this post. (A subsequent post will focus on words with the antonymic prefix hypo.) In the medical realm, hyperactivity is excessive behavior often associated with attention deficit disorder (ADD)- also referred to as attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)- though the term often refers informally to overactivity in general; the adjectival form is hyperactive, which is commonly colloquially abbreviated to hyper. Meanwhile, hypertension is abnormally high blood pressure and the attendant condition affecting the entire body. Another of numerous medical terms with the root hyper is hyperventilation, which originally referred to medical treatment by exposure to drafts of air; now, the word pertains to excessively rapid breathing and is often employed informally to describe overexcitement. Hyperplasia and hypertrophy both refer to excessive growth; the roots mean â€Å"formation† and â€Å"nourishment,† respectively. Hyperaphia, meanwhile, is excessive sensitivity to touch; the adjectival form is hyperaphic. Hyperbole (literally, â€Å"throwing beyond†- bole is cognate with ball) is exaggeration; a hyperbola, by comparison, is a specific type of geometric curve. (Hyperbolic serves as an adjective for both words.) Another term pertaining to rhetoric is hyperbaton (literally, â€Å"overstepping†), which refers to an inversion of the traditional word order in a sentence. A hyperborean is someone who lives in the far north regions of Earth; borean is cognate with boreal, meaning â€Å"northern†- a form of which is seen in â€Å"aurora borealis,† or â€Å"northern lights.† (Because the Hyperboreans of Roman mythology were beyond the reach of Boreas, the Roman god of the north wind, their domain was thought to be a paradise. Another name from Roman mythology is that of Hyperion, a Titan later associated in his characteristics with the god Apollo.) To be hypercritical or hypersensitive is to be excessively judgmental or emotionally vulnerable in the face of judgment, respectively. A hyperlink is an electronically enabled connection between a document or file and a similar element online or an online location; the word is derived from the notion of such a connection being â€Å"super.† (Hyperlink is also employed as a verb to describe making such a connection.) Hypermedia is a lesser-known term encompassing forms of media other than writing. In science, hyperspace describes multidimensional space; in science fiction, the term denotes a distinct dimensional region that enables faster-than-light travel. In the latter realm, hyperdrive is a form of propulsion that enables entering hyperspace, and the velocity at which hyperspace travel can occur is hyperspeed (prominent in Star Wars media but not to be confused with the concept of warp speed, which was popularized by the Star Trek entertainment franchise). Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Vocabulary category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:50 Handy Expressions About HandsList of 50 Great Word Games for Kids and AdultsHyphenation in Compound Nouns

Analytical Essay Sample on SEMATECH in the Marketplace

Analytical Essay Sample on SEMATECH in the Marketplace The U.S. government is usually thought of as the enforcer of statutes aimed at maintaining competition in a given market segment. Even forcing the break-up of individual companies deemed to have an unfair advantage in monopolizing entire markets as in the case of ATT in the 1980’s. In 1987, however, the same government was involved in bringing together a consortium of competing American manufacturers in a joint research and development effort on a scale never seen for individual companies in the U.S. This newly formed organization called SEMATECH or Semiconductor Manufacturing Technology, was created in March of 1987 and was seen both as the object of hope and the cause of extreme controversy as it tried to gain acceptance from industry giants and entrepreneurial start-up companies alike. A decade previous, U.S. semiconductor manufacturers controlled 90% of the world market for DRAM memory devices. (10)   By 1987 the combined DRAM market share for American manufacturers was 20% and in danger of further decline. (10)   It came as no surprise that the main benefactors of the U.S. manufacturer’s decline were the Japanese.   By 1987 the three largest semiconductor manufacturers in the world were Nippon Electric, Toshiba, and Hitachi. (1,2) How the U.S. comparative advantage had been lost was the subject of heated debate but whatever the reason, industry insiders such as George Schneer, then vice president for Intel Corporation, a major U.S. chip manufacturer, said the U.S. simply â€Å"lacked manufacturing competitiveness.†Ã‚   American manufacturers were quick to point out that there are a number of factors that impact the competition in the world market that are different than those in markets regulated by a single government.   They cited the role of the Japanese government as a technology broker, limiting internal competition between Japanese high technology companies and subsidizing research and development costs so as to help Japanese companies keep production costs down. The solution according to some was a similar pooling of research and development resources by American semiconductor manufacturers along with supplemental funding by the government.

5 Cases of Dangling Modifiers

5 Cases of Dangling Modifiers 5 Cases of Dangling Modifiers 5 Cases of Dangling Modifiers By Mark Nichol Take care that when you begin a sentence with a subordinate clause- a string of words that does not stand on its own as a complete statement but supports the main clause- the modifying phrase pertains to the sentence’s subject and not to some other noun or noun phrase. Here are five sentences that fail the test, with explanations and revisions. 1. Despite being reluctant to start a film career, Alan Rickman’s initial foray into cinema found him nearly stealing Die Hard away from Bruce Willis and cementing his status as a master of memorable bad guys. This sentence suggests that Alan Rickman’s movie debut was reluctant to begin a career in film. The modifying phrase must refer specifically to the person, not to a reference to something about the person, to repair this illogical error; simply insert his name, change the adjective reluctant to the noun reluctance, and, in the subject of the sentence, change his name to a pronoun: â€Å"Despite Alan Rickman’s reluctance about starting a film career, his initial foray into cinema found him nearly stealing Die Hard away from Bruce Willis and cementing his status as a master of memorable bad guys.† 2. Stopped up on blocks, I can see the boat from keel to top deck. Writers (or their editors) can often fix dangling modifiers- here, the writer describes herself, not the boat, as being stopped up on blocks- by starting the sentence with a subject and inserting the modifier as a parenthetical in the middle of the sentence: â€Å"I can see the boat, stopped up on blocks, from keel to top deck.† 3. Undrafted in 1987, the team welcomed John Smith to the franchise. John Smith, not the team, was undrafted in 1987, so, as with the previous example, exchange the modifying phrase and the subject to create a correct sentence: â€Å"The team welcomed John Smith, undrafted in 1987, to the franchise. 4. Bottled at the source, natural pressure forces the water toward a sealed delivery system. Again, starting with the subject is usually the best approach to repairing a dangling modifier. The water, not natural pressure, is bottled at the source, as is obvious in this revision: â€Å"The water, bottled at the source, is carried by natural pressure toward a sealed delivery system.† 5. With a successful track record at a young age, Smith decided that Jones was the man for the job. Who has the successful track record at a young age? The context may not be clear from this sentence presented in isolation, but Smith, the prospective employer, is impressed with job candidate Jones’s background, though the impressive track record could also pertain to Smith, so Jones’s name should be attached to the achievement to make it clear that this is what Smith finds appealing about Jones: â€Å"With Jones’s successful track record at a young age, Smith decided that he was the man for the job.† Better yet, also provide the sentence with a stronger start to replace the weak with: â€Å"Impressed by Jones’s successful track record at a young age, Smith decided that he was the man for the job.† Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Grammar category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:4 Types of Gerunds and Gerund PhrasesTelling a Good Poem from a Bad OneWriting a Thank You Note

Shortcomings of the healthcare system in the U.S Assignment

Shortcomings of the healthcare system in the U.S - Assignment Example Measurement must be both comprehensive and innovative to entail the data domains of processes, outcomes, cost and patient satisfaction (Stanhope & Lancaster, 2012). Stanhope and Lancaster, in Chapter one of the book, present some evidences of how the healthcare system has transformed. They argue that an ideal system should focus on every patient while prioritizing population health to improve and manage epidemic conditions such as heart diseases, obesity and diabetes (Stanhope & Lancaster, 2012). In providing improved patient outcome, translational biomedical research should be included in an ideal healthcare system, and constant research is thereafter required to establish the clinical interventions outcomes in the best patient outcomes. Additionally, the movie â€Å"Opening Doors: Public health Nursing in its 100th years† directed by Stephen Longstreth highlights public health nursing profession that involves nurses reaching-out to homes and communities they are serving. Thi s documentary educates nurses on the importance of population-centered healthcare in the community. Nurses’ commitment to the community and families in which they live is significant in the prevention of illnesses (citation). According to the movie, nurses should be involved in tackling issues such as teen pregnancy, healthcare counseling, and substance abuse for people who have a limited access to social and healthcare services. This is because their direct participation in addressing health care problems, in their communities, is a crucial role for nurses. Better System Performance In simpler terms, an ideal healthcare system should be systems-oriented. This implies that patients must enter into an experience, which is established around them and... Shortcomings of the healthcare system in the U.S This paper, therefore, provides descriptions and characteristics of an ideal healthcare system that is consistent with the current Healthcare Reform Movement. It then compares nursing practices with the concepts of population focused nursing that are presented in the text â€Å"Public Health Nursing: Population-Centered Health Care in the Community† and movie â€Å"Open Doors† (1990). An ideal healthcare system offers three key principles, which include better system performance, better patient outcome and better professional development. The main goal of such a system is to ensure that all American citizens have an equal access to quality healthcare services at a reasonable cost. Better Patient Outcomes: An ideal healthcare system should focus on population and patient outcome. Better outcomes are acquired through care that is family and patient –centered, preference sensitive and evidence centered. Chapter one and two of the reading describe â€Å"Perspectives in health care and population-centered nursing† and â€Å"Influences on healthcare delivery and population-centered nursing†. In simpler terms, an ideal healthcare system should be systems-oriented. This implies that patients must enter into an experience, which is established around them and in-line with their needs. This experience should, therefore, be longitudinal, cross-departmental, will center and interdisciplinary on patient and their families through a healthcare journey.

The Soviet takeover of the Baltic states Research Paper

The Soviet takeover of the Baltic states - Research Paper Example This is a break from the long independent existence of the three states, which had been the norm ever since the Russian Civil War that lasted from 1917 to 1922. The Nazi occupation put a halt to the integration of the three Baltic states into the Soviet Union for four years, from 1941 all the way to 1945, but with the end of the occupation that integration resumed in earnest, and in rapid manner, so that the three states were effectively made part of the Soviet Union through a process that has been termed â€Å"Sovietization†. The traditional arrangements and institutions of the existing political, social and economic order in the three states were totally ignored and supplanted with Soviet counterparts, causing significant disruption to the lives of the countries involved. Industries were nationalized where they were previously private concerns. Land distribution and collectivization were imposed and made the norm. The school systems were supplanted by the Soviet systems, inc luding the college level curricula. The Soviet system of politics was also used to supplant the existing political systems of the time. ... sians into the three states, to shift the population balance and demographics to skew towards the Soviet Union’s preferred mix (Smith; Occupation Museum Foundation; Institute of the History of Latvia; Lina; Shtromas et al. 249-260). II. The Puppet Communist Parties/People’s Diets By the time the Soviet Union made its attempts to homogenize the political and legislative systems in the Baltic states in 1940, the Soviet Union had effected the actual control of the three countries by a series of moves that included military action, as well as the annexation and takeover of government through purges of existing members of government and their replacement with Soviet-sourced members in the main. The government elites of the three countries were purged through deportation as well as via their being put to prison. This paved the way for the introduction of the next wave of changes aimed at overhauling the people’s assemblies, effected through the illegal change of the el ectoral laws in the three counties by Soviet decree, and the calling of People’s Diets elections made on July 14 of 1940. The election was to be in the style and manner of the Soviet Union, where a single party consisting of one slate of candidates were â€Å"voted† into office, and named as the â€Å"Working People’s Leagues†. These one-slate parties were to be voted without opposition, and with a unanimity of votes. In all of the three states there were indications of suppression of other competing parties wanting to join in the elections and to present alternatives to the Soviet one-party prescription, and the suppression was effective to the degree that the Soviet will won the day. Estonia in particular was singled out for the intensity of the efforts to counter the Soviet machinations there, but in

Decisions in Paradise Paper part 1,2, and 3 Essay

Decisions in Paradise Paper part 1,2, and 3 - Essay Example It is often seen that fast urbanization and the technological advancements have been responsible for global climate change which may have contributed to the increased frequency of natural calamities, throughout the world. Kava too is prone to natural disasters and at the same time external factors like terrorism and internal strife, has produced many securities among the local population. Hence, we need to apply the technique of decision making that would help us to decide on the projects that are best suited to benefit both Kava people and us. ‘Decision matrices are most effective where you have a number of good alternatives and many factors to take into account’ (internet). Decision Matrix Analysis would facilitate us to reach to the right decision because it incorporates a huge range of factors for the various projects that can be started here. The various business options may include tourism, petroleum, natural gas and agricultural produce. The few of the salient fac tors that may influence the decision include existing interests of the company, preliminary cost, scope, local resource, local development etc. ‘Using such a distributed assessment framework, the features of a range of evidence can be catered for whilst the assessor is not forced to pre-aggregate various types of evidence into a single numerical value. Both complete and incomplete assessments can be accommodated in a unified manner within the framework’ (Yang, 2001). Kava is bestowed with rich local raw materials which include products like petroleum, natural gas, cocoa, spices, sugar etc. Another area that has vast potential is the tourism industry that can be developed into a roaring business. Initially we must identify two areas which can be developed into concrete business solution. Later the company can diversify to introduce new areas for fresh ventures. Therefore, looking at

Prosocial behaviours in Early Childhood Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Prosocial behaviours in Early Childhood - Essay Example Pro social behavior is imperative to be followed in schools, mostly among early childhood generations. Most of the students face the problem of low pro social behavior such as the case scenario indicated Adams behavior in school is not adequate. There can be many reasons for this behavior such as lack of control, demonization and self-esteem on the perspective of parents as well as teachers. He may be suffering from some emotional and social problems, due to which he is harming other students. There is always specific reason behind this behavior of childhood. Adams present behavior is also related to his parent’s life, as parents influence have great impact in shaping a Childs behavior. If one gets frustrated in home, he behaves badly at other places to be calm and reduce the pressure of emotions. Therefore both parents as well as teachers should try to improve the behavior of Adam (Marion M, 2011). In the age of 5 to 7 years children’s go through development transforma tion most of which is adhered from school and a percentage is allotted to parental education. Due to this many changes occur in a child such as in the skills, thinking, behavior and emotions. The changes lead to positive and negative aspects. Adam is facing negative aspects of transformation of behaviors, in relation to social roles (MacNaughton G, 2003). Strategies In order to address the low pro social behavior of Adam many behavioral strategies can be used to prevent the situation. Some of them are discussed below: Promoting alternative thinking strategy- this strategy can help Adam to concentrate more on his emotional and social behavior. It will help to reduce aggressiveness and low pro social behavior of Adam. Teacher can conduct education and counseling programs for Adam to guide him towards social behavior. These activities can be conducted in class, school and parents should also take part in it because they play key role in developing ethnic behavior in their children. In this program Adam should be taught to express his feelings and behavior in a good manner, making him understand the perspective of others and their values so that in future he does not harm any student (Kauchak D & Eggen P, 2011). Development strategy- this strategy is mainly linked to psychodynamic education of children’s. It promotes social, emotional and cognitive growth. Teachers try to utilize classroom experiences with the children’s. By promoting this strategy on Adam it will create motivation and self-control in his nature and he would be able to recognize the needs and feelings of others. For example he will be become familiar of good and bad manners. He will believe more on himself and will do what is right and ethical (Gowen J W & Nebrig J B, 2000). Pro- social control strategy- this strategy have positive characteristics and concentrates on the well-being of peers. Adam is presently focusing on coercive strategy which is opposite to pro social strategy. He is focusing on unethical behavior. Teachers should try to adopt pro social strategy in order to improve the behavior of Adam. He should be provided learning’s of social relationships and should be continuously monitored for his action. Guidance should be provided to him on every step where he is wrong. This means that teachers can control the behavior of Adam through effective learning and monitoring systems (Gillies R M & Ashman A, 2003). 1.2 Highlight the relevant research work and theories related to this topic? Recent literature reviews have identified that there should be evaluating programs to prevent low social behavior of students which should be for longer durations, developmental and professional models should be included in the program to study the behavior of students and solution to their emotional problems, ongoing motivation and support should be provided

Understanding The Dilemma Of Skill Shortage Among Workers Essay

Understanding The Dilemma Of Skill Shortage Among Workers - Essay Example The writer explicitly presents his leader as a person that is self-aware, self-regulated, well motivated, with empathy towards his members and with proficiency regarding interpersonal social skills.Thus, the writer aims to evaluate his current leader concerning personal emotional intelligence. The writer explicitly presents his leader as a person that is self-aware, self-regulated, well motivated, with empathy towards his members and with proficiency regarding interpersonal social skills.Thus, emotional intelligence is indeed important in the group and with their leaders. Because of this, the organization must be willing and determined to help their leaders in developing their emotional intelligence in respect with their leadership skill. Every member must personal adhere to the principles of each component to influence and motivate their leader in developing his personal values and social perception. Thus, the task of developing and applying the principles of emotional intelligence in their respective organizations and their leaders is a job for all members requiring each willingness and participation. This is the reason why business organization leaders intend to create several ways by which they are going to be able to install individual development among their employees. There are also numerous ways by which they try to encourage their employees to reach their goals as individual persons and as a part of the organization as well. What is emotional intelligence and how does it affect a person’s ability to work?

Marketing of a new computer project Research Paper

Marketing of a new computer project - Research Paper Example In the table below I have listed the critical and non-critical activities. I have partitioned these activities into critical and non-critical activities by seeing their nature and effect of the overall project management. Critical activities Non-critical activities Complete electrical design Complete detailed drawings Analyses currently available model Manufacture hardware Design hardware Prepare prototype Test and integrate Produce technical manuals Design software Train sales representatives Develop marketing plan Advertise To determine the shortest time needed for the project management of this project, we have to cut down few activities time. I have analyzed and accessed that by doing this we can affect the project performance. So we have to keep the project development time period for the better project execution and management. According to my opinion, there are few activities that need more concentration and importance for the better project management. Like I have accessed that hardware design is relay significant activity. Next, the task of testing and integration is also very important. So there are the areas of concentration in this project. Stage 3 Work Breakdown Structure (WBS) Activity NO. Level 1 Level 2 1. Analyses currently available model 2. Reviewing the currently available model 3. Collect data 4. Conduct analysis 5. Complete detailed drawings 6. Design for enhanced user interface 7. Merger h/w and s/w qualities to enhance the design 8. Develop sketches 9. Complete electrical design 10. Review requirements

Understanding The Dilemma Of Skill Shortage Among Workers Essay

Understanding The Dilemma Of Skill Shortage Among Workers - Essay Example The writer explicitly presents his leader as a person that is self-aware, self-regulated, well motivated, with empathy towards his members and with proficiency regarding interpersonal social skills.Thus, the writer aims to evaluate his current leader concerning personal emotional intelligence. The writer explicitly presents his leader as a person that is self-aware, self-regulated, well motivated, with empathy towards his members and with proficiency regarding interpersonal social skills.Thus, emotional intelligence is indeed important in the group and with their leaders. Because of this, the organization must be willing and determined to help their leaders in developing their emotional intelligence in respect with their leadership skill. Every member must personal adhere to the principles of each component to influence and motivate their leader in developing his personal values and social perception. Thus, the task of developing and applying the principles of emotional intelligence in their respective organizations and their leaders is a job for all members requiring each willingness and participation. This is the reason why business organization leaders intend to create several ways by which they are going to be able to install individual development among their employees. There are also numerous ways by which they try to encourage their employees to reach their goals as individual persons and as a part of the organization as well. What is emotional intelligence and how does it affect a person’s ability to work?

Business regulation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Business regulation - Essay Example For the industry, alcohol beverage uses a wide range of marketing tools where most young people are greatly exposed in everyday life (Brabbs 2002). Further, these marketing tools result in abroad range of marketing practices that range from event sponsoring to TV commercials from advertising in social media to giving away promotional items across UK. To this effect, the paper will focus on effective alcohol marketing in the UK. The paper will quest to give a detailed analysis of alcohol advertising in the region, advertising and children, codes and practices as well as offer solutions aimed at effective alcohol advertising. The alcohol manufacturing and advertising agencies argue that it is legally possible for the alcoholic products to be advertised since they are legal products. Bans on the advertisements of the alcoholic products are argued to have adverse effects to the alcohol market as well as the media. The stakeholders argue that the advertisement on the products is aimed at promoting their sales as well as offering a chance to have new drinkers to the new individual brand product. There is arguably no link between the advertisement of alcoholic products to the overall levels of consumption of product or any related harm (Edwards 2004). The product advertisement has an objective of increasing its sales, maintaining the competitive advantage and provision of information to the customer on the new additives and improvements of the alcohol products of choice. The advertisements also offer a chance for the drinkers to ascertain the right products and differentiate them from counterfeits (Edwards 20 04). Evidently, the intensity of advertisement and promotion of the alcoholic products appears also to provide sanctions as well as the legitimate use of the products that may result in the increased damage on individuals as well as the societies. However, alcoholic advertisements are viewed to be one sided as they avoid any

Indian dance Essay Example for Free

Indian dance Essay Kathak is the one of eight forms of Indian classical dances perform by men and women, originated from northern indian, known as kathakars or storytellers. The styles of dance have its unique character from the rhythmic footwork with rhythms that he or she stomps out barefoot on the floor, accented with many bells worn around the ankles ( and from seeing the guest artist I can say there were more than 100 bells around her ankles making lots of noise to go with the beats of the drum), spectacular spins, and also every dance piece has a story behind it. A traditional kathak performance features a solo dancer on a stage, surrounded on all sides by the audience. The repertoire includes amad ,the dramatic entrance of the dancer on stage. Male dancers perform in Persian costume of wide skirts and round caps, while female dancers wear a traditional Indian garment called a sari. Back in the day women are the one who preserved this traditional dance more than the men. Kathak are typically performs by one dancer surrounded by a group of musicians. The solo dancer performs the parts of all the characters in the story. For example the guest artist were going back and forth rapidly from one of her dance piece between two characters. She did it without changing her positions on stage, changes in gestures and facial expressions signal instantly which character they take on at that moment. Before the guest artist started her dance so did a pronom giving thanks to all five elements or also known as the god, space, wind, fire, water and earth. Dance is on the earth, the eyes wherever the eyes are the mind, where the mind there are feelings. The way Antara gave thank to the god were a little different from what we normally did in class, with more steps and she also added some singing and harmony into the rituals. Based on what Antara told us, kathak is a very intimate dance where it is a three ways conversation, between dancers with musicians and dancers with the audience. The tempo for kathak consist of 16 beats. Dancers sometime precise the beats while dancing. With kathak you can play with the rhythms, there is no set rhythms. Kathak consisted of a lot of feet movement and with that the bells around Antara added a more prominent movements. Even though the focused on her foot because of all the bells, we can still see that shes using her upper body. The arms movement were very smooth and elegant, her eyes moved according to her hands gestures. Antara played the Theka which looked and sound like the accordion, along with singing and dancing. The Theka did not stop Antara from doing her incredible spins and keeping the tempo while doing all these things at once. Stomping her foot very fast and loud on the floor seems to be away for her to keep her tempo. Even when she was stomping her foot her hands and head was still doing a lot of movement to help tell the story. During her performance she uses a lot of phrases in Indian and it was hard for me to understand or catch what she was saying. But she later on explained that it is just like how we counts beats in america instead of using numbers, in Indian dance they used the language of the drums. Her right foot always ended in the front to help her keep up with the beat and also so that her body can face the audience and interacted with them. Her dance move was not all fast but it was very precise and very professional. Antara dances very elegant and somehow I can see her personality throw the way she moved the way she carry herself on all the dance pieces. She is a great dancer and a great guest artist for the style, she makes me want to learn more about the style and actually go see her performance in San Francisco.

Regional and extra regional players

Regional and extra regional players CHAPTER IV THE REGIONAL AND THE EXTRA REGIONAL PLAYERS AND THEIR ROLES â€Å"Besides a common religion, Islam, foreign invaders- from Alexander the great to British in the 19th century and the Soviets in the 20th century have united the Afghans†. -Insight Magazine, 09 April 1990. Brief History   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Afghanistan was the only country in the world to launch a strong protest in United Nations against the induction of Pakistan in 1947 and also to lodge a border dispute with Pakistan when it claimed that Durand Line is no more a binding contract as now there is no British Raj present in the region[1]. It also incited a major incursion in Bajur Agency, NWFP in 1961 with hope to have it annexed with itself and led then Prime Minister Dauod Khan to resign from his post, it plunged Afghanistan into a long spiral fall from which it has yet to recover[2]. Top of Form Bottom of Form   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Afghanistan soon proved to be a tough neighbour and sided with India on every matter which could hurt Pakistani interests using an India-Soviet favouring group. In December 1979 Russia invaded the Afghanistan with the pre-text of supporting the pro-Soviet Government. The USA weary of spreading Communism, Saudi Arabia indebted to the American cause coupled with sense of Muslim power and Pakistan worried of increasingly unstable and hostile Afghanistan combined together to exploit the Islamists waged a â€Å"Jihad† against â€Å"Soviet Invaders†. The Pashtun grievances and warlordism gave way to Taliban (literally meaning students) who rose from Kandhar and took 95% of Afghanistan under control by year 2000. Taliban were the friends of Pakistan and safeguarded the Western frontier of Pakistan against not only Indians but even Soviets[3]. Environmental Realities USA have tried to render peace in Afghanistan, but it has become more complicated due to inability of U.S. and NATO forces to understand the environmental realities peculiar to this region and being alien to the culture and traditions of the people. To have peace requires patience and right priorities. Before peace is attempted we need to understand some hard facts[4] :- (a) The continuing influx of Afghan youth trained in Pakistans madrassas now comprises the bulk of Taliban and Al Queda cadres. They are hooked to glorified violence in the name of jihad, and imbued with robotic discipline. They are an army beyond redemption and reasoning. (b) The silent Pashtun majority is terrorized into submission by Taliban and Al Queda. (c) The internecine warfare between the warlords for the past decade has created an unbridgeable divide between the Pashtuns, the Tajiks, the Uzbeks, the Hazaras and the Persian speaking Shiites of Herat. The past mutual ethnic cleansing and betrayals have created visceral hatred among different tribes. (d) The Pashtun dominated Taliban still cling to the idea of Pashtuns ruling over all Afghanistan which the minorities no longer countenance. This has led to a growing friction between ethnic groups, specifically the Pashtuns and their northern Tajik and Uzbek contemporaries. Foreign Relations Before the Soviet invasion, Afghanistan pursued a policy of neutrality and nonalignment in its foreign relations. After the December 1979 invasion, Afghanistans foreign policy mirrored that of the Soviet Union. The fall of the Taliban in October 2001 opened a new chapter in Afghanistans foreign relations. Afghanistan is now an active member of the international community, and has diplomatic relations with countries from around the world. Iran Iran shares a long border with Afghanistan (900kilometres) and has provided shelter to roughly 1.5million Afghans. Afghanistans relations with Iran have fluctuated over the years, with periodic disputes over the water rights of the Helmand River as the main issue of contention[5]. Initially, due to its war with Iraq, Iran was not actively involved in Afghanistan but later the Shia groups who were bitter due to meagre support from Pakistan became close to Iran. Following the Soviet invasion, Iran supported the cause of the Afghan resistance. Iran shares a cultural, linguistic affinity with northern Afghanistans non-Pashtun elements, which suffered the most under Taliban rule. Tehran resents the atrocities regularly visited upon the Shiah Hazara minority by Sunni fanatics in Afghanistan. Its relations with Afghanistan have improved since the fall of the Taliban and has been active in Afghan reconstruction efforts, particularly in the western portion of the country[6]. Presently, Iran h as adopted a more aloof posture and appears to be avoiding overt commitments or opposition to any single Afghan faction. Iranian policy makers have long sought to prevent an alliance between Pakistan and a Sunni-dominated Afghanistan, which would destabilise its entire eastern border. Besides Irans competition with Pakistan for access to the CARs, Irans Afghanistan policy is largely motivated by sectarian ties to Afghanistans Shia minority. A territorial collapse of Pakistan, or domestic instability that threatened to draw in Afghanistan has always tended to be contrary to Irans interests. It has always been perceived that the nationalistic developments of Pashtunistan could spill over to neighbouring Iran, destabilizing its Baluch population, thereby activating the anti-Iran elements in the form of the establishment of a Greater Balochistan. Thus, Iran is against both formation of a Pashtunistan within the Afghan confederation as it would give greater dominance to Sunni Pashtuns and further deteriorate the conditions of Shias, and also of an independent Pashtunistan which would result in similar demands of independent areas within Iran by other sub nationalistic communities. Prolongation of Afghan instability restricts Pakistans capability to export its light industrial goods in Central Asia and the Caucasus, where government subsidised cheap Iranian consumer exports have proliferated. A peaceful Afghanistan would also offer an unwelcome alternative for carrying Caspian basin oil and gas across Afghanistan to South Asia. Iran may also be concerned that an Afghan settlement could provide a larger opening for American and Turkish economic and political influence in the region[7]. CAR The main concern of the three CARs (Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, Tajikistan) bordering Afghanistan was the spill over of militants into their territories. Uzbekistan and Turkey had contacts with General Dostum who had argued that a confederation of autonomous states is the only solution for the chaos in Afghanistan. He warned that the Uzbeks will never again live under Pashtun domination and demanded a separate state, which would be a secular entity and act as a buffer for Central Asia against the spread of Islamic fundamentalism from the Pashtun-dominated area in the south[8]. Afghanistans relations with Tajikistan have been complicated by political upheaval and civil war in Tajikistan, which spurred some 100,000 Tajiks to seek refuge in Afghanistan in late 1992 and early 1993. Also disenchanted by the Talibans harsh treatment of Afghanistans Tajik minority, Tajikistan facilitated assistance to the Northern Alliance. The Karzai government has sought to establish closer ties with its no rthern neighbours in order to capitalize on the potential economic benefits of increased trade. CHINA During the 1970s, the Soviet influence in Kabul, and later their invasion of Afghanistan, has been perceived by Beijing as the purposeful encircling of China by the Soviet Union. Thus, support to Pakistans western border security has been a major feature of Beijings policy. China also has keen interests in Central Asias energy resources and, thus, supports a moderate government at Kabul, because it is believed to be least likely to foment any sort of extremism and disturbance in neighbouring countries. Chinas strategic concerns in the area are mirrored by the security of its lines of communication, which tends to counter Afghanistans rhetoric on Pashtunistan. The ethnic-religious civil wars in Afghanistan have caused rise of Islamic fundamentalism. Just as America has a vision of a modestly stable Afghanistan that will no longer be a haven for extremists, China has a vision of Afghanistan as a secure conduit for roads and energy pipelines that will bring natural resources from the Indian Ocean and elsewhere. So if America defeats Al Qaeda and the irreconcilab le elements of the Taliban, Chinas geopolitical position will be enhanced[9]. This is not a paradox, since China and America have convergence of interests with difference being that whole direction of Americas military and diplomatic effort is toward an exit strategy, whereas the Chinese hope to stay and profit. Saudi Arabia In late seventies, Saudis were facing severe criticism for their close alliance with USA from Arab governments. Saudis used the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan as a springboard to portray their commitment to Muslim causes and brush up their Islamic credentials. In early eighties in close cooperation with America, Saudi Arabia provided a large amount of financial aid for military and humanitarian purposes for Afghanistan. Pakistan had close working relations with all Sunni groups, and never tried to bring Shia groups into the coalition to avoid friction with Saudis. After the cut off of U.S. funds, Saudis became the largest provider of funds for Afghan adventure. The direct role of Saudi Arabia also dramatically increased. Later, especially post 9/11, the warm relations between Taliban and Saudis hit the bottom when Taliban refused to cooperate on Osama bin Ladin issue. Saudis had funded the most conservative individuals and organizations in Afghanistan and Pakistan. Ironically, most o f them turned against the Saudi royal family and had openly criticized the royal family for its close relationship with USA. Russia Russia though major player until 1991 had markedly reduced influence since its disintegration into many independent states. It has given limited military help to the Taliban opposition and deployed troops in Tajikistan near the border of Afghanistan. It is suspicious of increasing US influence in the area traditionally seen by them as their area of influence but not in a position to challenge the USA. Since the fall of the Taliban, the Karzai government has improved relations with Russia, but Afghanistans outstanding foreign debt to Russia still continues to be a source of contention. While the campaign against international terrorism is a key area in which U.S. and Russian interests converge, Moscow is also wary of growing U.S. influence in especially the oil-rich Caspian Sea basin. Russia is providing military hardware to Afghanistan and is aware of the fact that fragile nature of central authority in Afghanistan, torn by chronic infighting among rival ethnic factions, requires U.S. presence as its disengagement would likely spur renewed competition for influence. Russia has became more interested in confining Pashtun dominated Islam to the south and creating a Tadjik and Uzbek entity as a buffer area for the Central Asian states, which also suits Russias near abroad policy. Pakistan Pakistan shares a border of some 2,400 kilometres with Afghanistan and has 10 million Pashtun citizens of its own. The main aim of Pakistans Afghan policy was to have a friendly government in Afghanistan to secure its Western border. Pakistans policy since its inception has been focused on maintaining a situation that could help it avoid controversy over the Durand Line. It has been trying to force a fusion of communities along own side and inciting separation of those on the other side of the line. Islamabad sought to offset Afghan territorial claims by supporting Afghan Islamic parties. Unfortunately, the policies, which it adopted, had exactly the opposite effects. None of the Afghan governments were willing to subordinate its actions to Pakistans wishes. Many Afghans say Pakistan has exacerbated the ethnic component of their conflict by supporting Pashtun Islamic rule. There was a domestic political incentive as well, linked to Islamabads fears about irredentism. â€Å"Pakistan saw in the Taliban, and other fundamentalists, the opportunity to undermine support for Pashtun nationalism†[10]. Pakistan was the first country to recognise Taliban rule in Afghanistan and initiated efforts to persuade the Taliban to accept a broad-based government in Kabul in which all major ethnic tribes would share power. September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks on the USA changed everything and presented Pakistan with a stark choice: either make common cause with Washington in its war against bin Ladens al-Qaeda network based in Taliban-controlled neighbouring Afghanistan, or persist with its pro-Taliban Afghan policy and as a consequence suffer international condemnation of guilt by association. On September 13, 2001 then President General Pervez Musharraf announced that Pakistan would lend its unstinted cooperation to the international coalition against terror[11]. General Pervez Musharraf address to the nation on 19 September is attached as appendix B. More recently, Pakistan has been alarmed by Indias growing political, military, and economic ties to Afghanistan, and sees its establishment of consulates in the Pashtun-majority cities of Jalalabad and Kandahar as provocative. Many Afghans feel Islamabads insistence on Pashtun representation in the post-Taliban political order as the â€Å"crying of crocodile tears†, reflective of an inability to give up strategic designs on Afghanistan[12]. Infact it is widely believed â€Å"When push comes to shove, Pakistan is unlikely to hold back, and will use its long border and deep ethnic links with Pashtuns to alter the balance in its favour†, says a senior Pashtun leader in the present Hamid Karzis government[13]. Even though there are more Pashtuns in Pakistan than in Afghanistan and Pakistani Pakhtuns are better educated and more affluent, Pakistan has always been nervous about its Pashtun population. Does that mean Pakistan and Afghanistan will forever remain condemned to instability and seek security by dependence on outside forces? This may not be true, but to bring stability in the region by uniting the furious Pashtuns divided by the Durand line may be a viable option. A weak non-Pashtun dominated state in Afghanistan has never posed any threat to Pakistan because it has neither had any ideological bearings or religious extra-national ambitions nor any ethnic or sub-nationalist stirrings. On the other hand, whenever there has been a strong Pashtun dominated state in Afghanistan, its government has supported Pashtun separatism (refusal to accept the Durand Line) and pose a threat to the territorial integrity and political solidarity of Pakistan[14]. Pakistan has no effective control over a large swath of territory along its border with Afghanistan primarily dominated by Pashtuns[15]. Dangerous extremist groups that are intent on attacking the U.S. such as al-Qaeda, enjoy safe haven in these border areas. United States â€Å"had we looked deeper, we might have found that the root causes behind the enduring and resilient nature of the Taliban have very little to do with religion, and much to do with an ancient ethnic struggle we [the United States] should consider the prospect of creating a Pashtunistan which reflects the tribal boundaries. This would be a new state, carved from parts of both Afghanistan and Pakistan This new area would be composed largely of ethnic Pashtuns, similar to what we have created in Kurdistan or Bosnia, and it would there ­fore very likely have the consent of the population on the ground†[16] -Major Michael D. Holmes Following the Soviet invasion, the United States supported diplomatic efforts to achieve a Soviet withdrawal and contributed to the refugee program in Pakistan to assist Afghans. After the Soviet withdrawal, CIA let Pak ISI deal with the ugly mess of Afghanistan. The USA initially gave a free hand to Pak to build up the Taliban regime in Afghanistan. The US wanted the Taliban to develop as a counterweight to the Iranian regime and to check USSRs influence in the region. A favourable govt in Kabul would help USA in numerous ways. With the emergence of CARs as independent countries in 1991 and the prospects of availability of huge oil and gas reserves again brought that area to international focus. Meanwhile, the Taliban on capturing Kabul, imposed a strict Islamic code and practiced fundamentalist policies. This led to the USA gradually distancing itself from the Taliban. Post September 11, 2001 events of cosmic proportions have resulted in world focusing on Afghanistan with a renewed interest to deal with Osama Bin Laden, who was responsible for the acts of terror originating from Afghanistan. The Osama Bin Laden Factor. Osama Bin Laden was once one of the star recruiters of the US intelligence agency the CIA. He enrolled thousands of jihad volunteers from the Middle East for a jihad against the Soviet Union in Afghanistan. Ironically after winning their jihad against the USSR, these fundamentalists turned their attention onto the other superpower. Post 9/11 led to U.S. GWOT as the Taliban refused to hand over Osama Bin Laden to the USA. Pashtun Factor. U.S. policymakers recognised early on that Pashtun support was needed to create a broader-based moment to replace the Taliban and provide a degree of stability in the region[17]. This approach appears to have long term goal of stabilising effect as U.S. has demonstrated that America supports the Pashtun desire for a stronger position in relation to the Punjabi-dominated government in Islamabad in the Af-Pak border area of Durand Line. U.S. understands that Pashtuns in FATA treasure their long-standing autonomy and do not like to be ruled by Islamabad. What they want is integration into the Northwest Frontier Province (NWFP) and FATA to form a single unified â€Å"Pashtun† province that enjoys the autonomy envisaged in the inoperative 1973 Pakistan constitution[18]. Al-Qaeda and its â€Å"foreign fighters,† who are mostly Arab, depend on local support from the Taliban for their sanctuary. Unlike Al-Qaeda, with its global terrorist agenda, most of the Tali ban factions focus on local objectives in Afghanistan and FATA; they do not pose a direct threat to the USA. On March 1, 2007, Pakistani ambassador to Washington the Maj. Gen (retired) Mahmud Ali Durrani, said at a seminar at the Pakistan Embassy, â€Å"I hope the Taliban and Pashtun nationalism dont merge. If that happens, weve had it, and were on the verge of that.[19]† India Afghanistan remained the focus of Indian regional policy because of its geo-strategic proximity to Pakistan and the Indian foreign policy was centered on maintaining very cordial relations with it. India in 1950 signed â€Å"Friendship Treaty† to promote bilateral co-operation with Afghanistan to enhance Indian influence. In 1967, the United Pashtunistan Front (UPF) was formed in New Delhi. The then Indian Foreign Minister Swaran Singh told the Indian Parliament that â€Å"we are fully aware of the fundamental freedoms and natural aspirations of the brave Pashtuns which have been consistently denied to them, and their struggle has got our greatest sympathy and we will certainly support the efforts that Khan Abdul Ghafar Khan might undertake in that direction.†[20] After the Soviet invasion in 1979 India doubled up its efforts to further strengthen its relations with Afghanistan. Over the years Indian political elite maintained close contacts with Pasthun leaders on both sides of Durand line. The two countries have always shared a healthy relationship but with the Soviet withdrawal and its disintegration in 1991 and Mujahedeens control of Kabul in April 1992 the relations reached its nadir. During Taliban rule more than 30,000 Afghan refugees moved to India. India is helping Afghanistan rebuild itself and with an ever-increasing belligerence in all fields, including military, intelligence, humanitarian, and economic[21]. India is the largest aid provider to Afghanistan and in the coming few years India likely to project as a regional power is appropriately following a pro-active approach and take the right initiatives on Afghanistan. By fostering greater economic ties with the pro-Indian Northern Alliance dominant Kabul government, New Delhi has dramatically increased its involvement in Afghanistan, and is seeking to marginalize Pakistan[22]. India would prefer a separate Pashtunistan rather than a neo-Taliban ruling over Afghanistan, as this would frustrate Pakistani strategy. India has good relations with Tajikistan and would continue to have good relations with the Tajik section of Afghanistan as well as with a newly formed Pashtunistan. The geo-strategic importance of Afghanistan has a great bearing on India and its approach is primarily Pak focused. Indias economic interests in Afghanistan are secondary to its strategic interests. Apart from the desire to restore Pakistans two-front problem, some of the factors that govern Indian approach to Afghanistan are :- (a) A pro Pak government in Afghanistan is likely to support Pakistan in case of any future Indo-Pak Conflict and would provide them necessary Strategic depth. (b) Pak has been using Taliban militia to wage a proxy war in Kashmir. (c) Afghanistan is the hub of drug trafficking and narco-terrorism[23]. (d) A peaceful and stable Afghanistan will be in the economic interests of India as it will raise the prospects of Indo-Afghanistan trade and also provide greater access to the Central Asian markets and important centers for gas and oil. (e) A fundamentalist Afghanistan is likely to encourage the spread of Islamic fundamentalism in the region which would affect India. Afghanistan constitutes a new battleground for Indo-Pakistani hostility. Credible U.S. media leaks indicate that Pakistani linkages to the car bombing of the Indian Embassy in Kabul on July 7, 2008.India, thus needs to convince Pakistan that Islamabad instead of exporting hatred and destruction, should seek positive parity with India and others in terms of improving the quality of life of its citizens in an inclusive manner. International Perspective There is no formal international position on the Durand Line, simply a de facto one that recognizes it as a real border. No other state has accepted Afghanistans position that it is not such a border. The question arises so why should there be any international pressure on Pakistan and Afghanistan to negotiate about Durand line? The reason is that since September 11, 2001, FATA and the area alongside the Durand line has been viewed as a site of global insecurity that can be controlled only when Pakistan takes responsibility for its territory and extends the structures of the state into the region through expanding opportunities for economic development and education in the FATA region[24]. This is quite difficult because the security situation is currently poor, which makes launching large development projects difficult. Afghanistans refusal to give de jure recognition to the border therefore stands in the way of a comprehensive development program that would have much more impact th an would parallel developments in each country[25]. Having driven the Taliban and Al Qaeda from Afghanistan, the United States and its allies are particularly keen to end FATAs (and to a lesser extent Baluchistans) along the Durand Line to serve as center of Islamic radicalism that promotes international terrorism and seeks to destabilize Afghanistan. The presence of U.S., International Security Assistance Force(ISAF)[26], and Afghan troops gives the border issue some practical urgency as the insurgents they fight retreat back into Pakistan in the belief that they will not be pursued or attacked across an international boundary[27]. From the perspective of the international community the discussions limited to recognition of the Durand Line as a de jure international boundary would not bring stability in the region even if they succeeded as no government in Afghanistan would be willing to pay the political price for accepting the border unless such an agreement were part of a broader package designed to make the country more secure. P akistan also has much to gain as its economy will get a boost[28]. While Afghanistan is concerned about Pakistans support of the Taliban, in times past it has been Pakistan that has been concerned about Afghanistans tacit support of Pashtun separatists[29]. Afghan Nationalism. On a functional level, Afghanistan cannot be subjectively examined under the Western conception of either a state or a nation. The country simply does not operate in any sense of either definition at this time. Both a limited security apparatus and stalled international support have done little to cultivate ancient divisions based on ethnic and religious elements[30].This relatively low level of Afghan nationalism is a result of internal conflict of last two decades with atrocities committed by all sides on ethnic rivals and forced displacements and makes the task of rekindling the flame of nationalism more difficult. Political reconstruction is the essential pre-requisite for the economic reconstruction of the country. Afghanistan is at a major crossroad of its history today. The chain of events, which has led to the present situation, was beyond the control of Afghans. But now, it is Afghans who will have to do soul searching and make some difficult choices. Afghanistans neighbours need to understand and digest the fact that the entire region will be the net winner in case Afghanistan and Pakistan are good friends. The old theories of using Afghanistan as a pawn to open a second front against any third country need to be buried. Any state which has any motivation to incite sectarian or ethnic divisions in any of its neighbours is following a zero gain policy as far as the long term interest of the entire region is concerned. This is the age of globalisation and not of any â€Å"Forward Policies†. Afghan history has proved that great issues of the day cannot be settled by fighting but by consultation and consensus[31]. Many regional and extra regional powers are trying to retain their respective spheres of influence in Afghanistan but no regional power can afford to antagonise Washington by working openly at cross purposes with its military campaign, it has to be supportive to U.S. goals and objectives in the region to meet its asp irations. The international community, including the U.S. government, has long avoided taking a clear position on the border issue, but its ambivalence is beginning to change[32]. Ghaus, Abdul Samad,The fall of Afghanistan,Pergamon-Brasseys Intenational Defense Publishers,London1988,p109. Qureshi, S.M.M. Pakhtunistan: The Frontier Dispute Between Afghanistan and Pakistan . Pacific Affairs, Vol. 39, No. 1/2 Spring Summer, 1966, pp. 99-114. . â€Å"The future of Afghanistan and Pakistan†. WTF: What the fork? . Puri, Rajinder â€Å"Defusing Af-Pak† June 7, 2009 Ghaus,Op.cit.pp148-149. Afghanistan- Conservapedia. . Tomsen, Peter. â€Å"Geopolitics of an Afghan Settlement.† Perceptions, Journal of International Affairs Dec 2000 Feb 2001, Volume 5, Number 4. . Hussain, Hamid, â€Å"Afghanistan not so great games† Robert D. Kaplan. â€Å"Beijings Afghan Gamble†. The Center for a New American Security Khattak, Afrasiab. Interview with ICG, Chairman, Human Rights Commission of Pakistan (HRCP), Peshawar, May 2002. Hussain, Dr. Rifaat â€Å"Pakistans Relations with Afghanistan: Continuity and Change.† The International Crisis Group, â€Å"Afghanistan:The Problem of Pashtun Alienation†.5 August 2003. . ibid. Bhatt, Garurang. â€Å"Coming Chaos in Afghanistan†.23 Aug 2006. Bokhari, Kamran and Burton Fred, â€Å" The Counterinsurgency in Pakistan† Aug 13,2009. . Holmes, Major Michael D. â€Å"Secessionist Jihad: The Talibans Struggle for Pashtunistan,† the Military Intelligence Professional Bulletin, On the Horizon: MI Missions of the Near Future, July-September 2008 Zalmay, Khalilzad and Daniel, Byman, â€Å"Afghanistan: the Consolidation of a Rogue State†, The Washington Quarterly, Vol. 23, No. 1 (Winter 2000), p. 74. Selig S. Harrison, â€Å"Pakistan: The State of the Union† Ibid. Owen, Bennett Jones Nationalism in Pakistan: Eye of the Storm, New Haven: Yale University Press, 2002,p. 139. Bhadrakumar, M.K. â€Å"India and the Central Asian Dawn†. The Hindu. 31 Dec 2009. Zaman, Aly, â€Å"Indias Increased Involvement in Afghanistan and Central Asia: Implications for Pakistan,† Islamabad Policy Research Institute (IPRI) Journal, Vol. 3, N0.2 (Summer 2003), Bhadrakumar, M.K. â€Å"Indian Interests in Regional Security†. The Hindu. 28 Aug 2009. Subramanian Nirupama, â€Å"Gilgit-Baltistan Autonomy wins few Friends†. The Hindu. 30 Nov 2009. Barfield, Thomas, The Durand Line: History, Consequences, and Future. Conference Organized by the American Institute of Afghanistan Studies and the Hollings Center in Istanbul, Turkey November 2007. â€Å"Across the Durrand Line†. Editorial. The Dawn 24 July 2008. . Bhadrakumar, M.K. Loc.cit. Maitra, Ramtanu, â€Å"Central Asia: Dangerous Line in the Sand†.13 March 2003. . The Durand Line: History, Consequences and Future Istanbul, Turkey July 11-13, 2007 Feiser, Jonathan, â€Å"Central Asia The ghost of GreaterAfghanistan† Jul 23, 2003 Amin, Agha. â€Å"Durand Line-Afghanistan-Pakistan-Border Disputes† Journal of Afghanistan Studies Kabul, November 2004. Neumann, Ronald, â€Å"Borderline Insanity: Thinking Big about Afghanistan† The American Interest, November December 2007 issue.

Willa Cathers O Pioneers! and Charlotte Perkins Gilmans Mr. Peebles

Willa Cather's O Pioneers! and Charlotte Perkins Gilman's Mr. Peebles' Heart In both Willa Cather’s novel O Pioneers! and Charlotte Perkins Gilman’s short story "Mr. Peebles’ Heart" present the reader with strong, successful female characters. Alexandra Bergson, the heroine of O Pioneers!, becomes the manager and proprietor of a prosperous farm on the Nebraska frontier while Joan R. Bascom of "Mr. Peebles’ Heart" is a successful doctor. Cather and Gilman create competent, independent female characters that do not conform to the perceived societal standards for women in the late-nineteenth and early-twentieth century. Both women must struggle against society’s perception of what they should be and how they should behave, however, Alexandra’s struggle leaves her emotionally distant while Joan’s struggle does not hinder her emotional attachments. Throughout the nineteenth century, gender roles were increasingly characterized by a division of activity into separate spheres for men and women. Men moved freely between home and the outside world, however, women were largely restricted to the home and remained financially dependent upon a man. While this situation offered women more power within the home, that power was very limited in scope. As the twentieth century neared, more and more women began to challenge the societal expectations placed upon them. Many Americans began to fear that the family was disintegrating due to "a declining birth rate, a rising divorce rate, and efforts of a growing number of women to break out of their separate sphere of domesticity by obtaining a higher education, joining women’s organizations, and taking jobs outside the home" (Kellogg and Mintz 1937). As this progressive movement gained momentu... ...ifestyle as the manager of a profitable farm. But while Joan has thrived in her professional and her social life, Alexandra is emotionally stunted as a result of her struggle against societal norms. Works Cited Cather, Willa. O Pioneers! New York: Dover Publications, Inc., 1993. Gilman, Charlotte Perkins. "Mr. Peebles’ Heart." "The Yellow Wallpaper" and Other Stories. Ed. Paul Negri. New York: Dover Publications, Inc., 1997. 63-70. Kellogg, Susan and Steven Mintz. "Family Structures." Encyclopedia of American Social History. Ed. by Mary Kupiec Cayton, Elliott J. Gorn and Peter W. Williams). New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1993. 1925-1945. Pleck, Elizabeth H. "Gender Roles and Relation." Encyclopedia of American Social History. Ed. by Mary Kupiec Cayton, Elliott J. Gorn and Peter W. Williams). New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1993. 1945-1961.

The World Wide Web or Internet

Commonly known as the Internet, the world†s largest network is used extensively throughout the world today. Since its creation in 1983, the Internet has continued to grow in popularity and use as a commercial and private communications medium. Millions of people throughout the world use the Internet in a variety of ways, ranging from personal conversations to on-line shopping. According to a survey compiled by Nua Ltd in 1999, the number of Internet users rose from 26 million in 1995 to 205 million in 1999, an increase of almost 700% (Nua Ltd)! With such an explosive increase, how then has he Internet affected us personally, and how has it affected the way we do business? The answers to these questions include changes in the way people obtain information, interact, work, learn and conduct business. Given the Internet†s original purpose is to share information, it is no wonder that the most important asset of the Internet is the wealth of information that can be found on the Internet (Maney 3). Information previously found only in libraries and encyclopedias is now available on the Internet; in addition, news, weather, and movie listings are also ade available on the Internet. Internet users constantly remain informed of the world around them by reading news from the New York Times, USA Today, San Jose Mercury News, Los Angeles Times and many other newspapers found on-line. Even those like myself who are far away from home can keep in touch by reading local newspapers Along with the vast amount of information, the Internet also provides almost instant sharing and distribution of information. Through the use of electronic mail, people all over the world can â€Å"send information to far-away places cheaply, easily and in great olume – much more than any medium before it† (Maney 3). This form of communication known as email is the most widely used tool of the Internet today. Another invention of the Internet is the chat room. From within a chat room, people make friends with others throughout the world and share information with one another in real time. Because of email and chat capability, employees can work together without requiring that everyone work in the same place or even at the same time (Maney 4). On a more personal level, email and chat allow families and friends to stay in touch, keeping relationships intact. Being an international student myself, email and chat rooms have greatly benefited me as they enable me to constantly keep in touch with my family and friends in Singapore. The educational community has also taken advantage of the opportunities the Internet offers. Over the last few years, there has been a tremendous growth in both the number of distance education courses offered by colleges and universities, and in the enrollment in those classes. Internet based classes allow students to watch, listen, and exchange ideas with educators and other students who may be miles away. With n-line education, people learn independently and at their own pace. Such convenience allows learning to take place virtually anywhere and at any time. Busy working adults are now taking classes in the comfort of their home without having to attend regularly scheduled classes on a college campus. Online education also provides people from rural districts the opportunity to have an education without having to travel long distances. Besides supporting on-line education, the Internet has also made our lives immensely simple by allowing us to do countless tasks even in the middle of the night. Using the Internet, people find jobs, send electronic cards, shop, make airline and hotel reservations, execute stock trades, and even pay bills online! The Internet is thus a virtual market place where people can, at the click of a button, select products, place orders, and pay using a secure electronic transaction. All of this ability has made conducting personal business convenient and easy, and enables everyone to complete many tasks that previously would take weeks. With the increasing popularity of people shopping and purchasing goods online, the Internet has created â€Å"new ways of doing business† (Maney 4). Realizing the potential of the Internet, many companies have started to advertise their products and services on-line. By marketing their products and services on-line, companies are able to constantly update the site's product catalog and inform buyers of any changes. Companies, especially new ones, can now allow themselves to be made known to the consumers through advertising over the Internet. Furthermore, there is lesser overhead cost involved, as sales persons and order takers are no longer required. In addition, the Internet has also enabled low budget organizations to reach interested parties across the country or the world. All of these lower costs have resulted in lower costs for the consumer. Many on-line shoppers can find good deals and low prices for desired goods, leading to even more and more on-line business. However, these reduced costs and benefits for the consumer have had adverse effects on some businesses that have been around for many years. Those business which typically are service or data oriented have seen a sharp decline in sales. For example, ar dealerships compete with on-line business because some customers prefer finding a vehicle on-line instead of dealing with a nagging car salesman. Car dealerships are not the only ones threatened by the convenience of the Internet. Postal services and phone companies also face new competition from Internet applications such as email Although the Internet may have some great and significant impact on our lives and the way business is done, there are considerable consequences and drawbacks. Because of the Internet, a new social disorder has been created known as Internet Addiction Disorder (IAD). IAD occurs when a computer dominates rather than serves a person, and when people develop â€Å"unhealthy dependencies on the Internet use† (Gard 3). Psychologists have found that there has been a raise in the number of people who â€Å"find the virtual reality on computer screens more attractive than everyday reality† (Gard 3). These addicts perceive that surfing the web is more important than doing any other task. They cannot control the amount of time spent on the computer. For these addicts, the Internet serves as an outlet to escape from reality, relieving their feelings f distress (Gard 3). These addicts often feel anxious and uneasy when not on-line, and crave the Internet connection. As a result of such an addiction, Internet addicts tend to neglect their family, friends and work. Ironically, numerous on-line support groups have since been set up to offer advice to people with such a disorder. Apart from Internet addiction, personal privacy is jeopardized and â€Å"doesn†t exist on the Internet† (Gard 2). Being a web surfer myself, I have had to provide my name, email account, interests, and even telephone number during several occasions in order to ccess a particular web site. In doing this, unscrupulous Internet businesses steal or misuse personal information given to them to â€Å"personalize features on their sites to make them more appealing† (Gard 2). They also release information about their customers to their advertisers. These companies use this information to invade one†s personal time with phone calls and newsletters trying to offer their services. Furthermore, the Internet has made it easier than ever before for people to share and sell data, so that â€Å"anyone who†s willing to pay can get Social Security numbers and riving records† (Gard 2). Likewise, a person having your credit card number and its expiration date can now purchase goods online. From the above examples, it can be seen that there is little, if any, privacy left to be found when dealing with the Internet. The Internet has also given criminals a new media to exploit. While there are many types of Internet criminal activity, child pornography has quickly become a critical issue for the Internet. There has been a widespread increase in the distribution of illegal child pornography on the Internet; child pornographers misuse the Internet to exploit exually abused and molested children throughout the world. By means of the Internet, sexually explicit material of children has been illegally transmitted and sold. Despite these abhorrent activities, the Internet provides each of us with extraordinary With the number of people using the Internet growing exponentially, it is easy to see that the Internet has pervaded the life of everyone. Those that use the Internet on a daily basis, or even only a little, can feel the impact of the Internet around them. The ease with which they can communicate, learn, or accomplish simple tasks and chores akes life easier, and hopefully less stressful. Even those that don†t use the Internet can feel the impact it has on our society and businesses. Because many businesses today use the Internet to advertise products and to provide support, those not familiar with the Internet may find it difficult to get the information needed. People in this position may not like what is happening around them, but the effect on their lives is also felt. Whether the Internet†s effect on someone is good or bad, the fact remains that the Internet has an effect on us all.